『週刊ST』5/26「TOEFL® iBT対策講座」問題

Indo-European Languages


  1. Linguistics, the scientific study of language, can reach more deeply into the human past than the most ancient written records. It compares related languages to reconstruct their immediate [progenitors] and eventually their ultimate ancestor, or protolanguage. The protolanguage in turn illuminates the lives of its speakers and locates them in time and place.
  2. The science developed from the study of the Indo-European superfamily of languages, by far the largest in number of languages and number of speakers. Nearly half of the world's population speaks an Indo-European language as a first language; six of the 10 languages in which Scientific American appears, English, French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish, belong to this superfamily.
  3. Over the past 200 years, linguists have reconstructed the vocabulary and syntax of the postulated Indo-European protolanguage with increasing confidence and [insight]. They have tried to unravel the paths by which the language broke into daughter languages that spread throughout Eurasia, seeking at the origin of those paths the homeland of the protolanguage itself. The early investigators placed the homeland in Europe and posited migratory paths by which the daughter languages evolved into clearly defined Eastern or Western branches. Recent research indicates that the protolanguage originated more than 6,000 years ago in eastern Anatolia — that part of Turkey that lies in Asia — and that some daughter languages must have differentiated in the course of migrations that took them first to the East and later to the West.
  4. The reconstruction of ancient languages may be likened to the method used by molecular biologists in their quest to understand the evolution of life. The biochemist identifies molecular elements that perform similar functions in widely [divergent] species to infer the characteristics of the primordial cell from which they are presumed to have descended. So does the linguist seek correspondences in grammar, syntax, vocabulary and vocalization among known languages in order to reconstruct their immediate forebears and ultimately the original tongue. Living languages can be compared directly with one another; dead languages that have survived in written form can usually be vocalized by [inference] from internal linguistic evidence. Dead languages that have never been written, however, can be reconstructed only by comparing their descendants and by working backward according to the laws that govern phonological change. Phonology, the study of word sounds, is all-important to historical linguists because sounds are more stable over the centuries than are meanings.
  5. Early studies of Indo-European languages focused on those most familiar to the original European researchers: the Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic families. Affinities between these and the “Aryan” languages spoken in faraway India were noticed by European travelers as early as the 16th century. That they might all share a common ancestor was first proposed in 1786 by Sir William Jones, an English jurist and student of Eastern cultures. He thus launched what came to be known as the Indo-European hypothesis, which served as the principal stimulus to the founders of historical linguistics in the 19th century.
  6. In the 2,000 years before the Indo-Europeans who remained in the homeland began to write history, the success of the agricultural revolution brought a population explosion to the Indo-European community. [The pressure of population, we may surmise, compelled the migration of successive waves of Indo-Europeans to fertile areas that were not yet cultivated.]
  7. The linguistic translocation of the Indo-European homeland from northern Europe to Asia Minor requires drastic revisions in theories about the migratory paths along which the Indo-European languages must have spread across Eurasia. Thus, the hypothetical Aryans who were said to have borne the so-called Aryan, or Indo-Iranian, language from Europe to India, and who were conscripted into service as the Nordic supermen of Nazi mythology turn out to be the real Indo-Iranians who made the more plausible migration from Asia Minor around the northern slopes of the Himalayan Mountains and down through modern Afghanistan to settle in India. [A] Europe is seen, therefore, as the destination, rather than the source, of Indo-European migration.
  8. [B] The more extensive migrations of speakers of the Greek-Armenian-Indo-Iranian dialects began with the breakup of the main Indo-European language community in the third millennium B.C. [C] Two groups of Indo-Iranian speakers made their way East during the second millennium B.C. One of them, speakers of the Kafiri languages, survives to this day in Nuristan, on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush in northeast Afghanistan. [D]



  1. The word [progenitors] in the passage is closest in meaning to

    1. predecessors

    2. similarities

    3. old dialects

    4. common roots

  2. Why does the author mention Scientific American in paragraph 2?

    1. Because it is a very well-known magazine.

    2. Because it publishes articles about linguistics.

    3. Because over half the languages it’s published in are Indo-European.

    4. Because all the languages it’s published in are Indo-European.

  3. The word [insight] in the passage is closest in meaning to

    1. accuracy

    2. complexity

    3. ease

    4. understanding

  4. According to paragraph 3, what have linguists been trying to establish?

    1. Where the Indo-European languages originated from.

    2. The process by which the Indo-European languages spread.

    3. Why the Indo-European languages are so widespread.

    4. How the protolanguage developed.

  5. Why are molecular biologists mentioned?

    1. Because biologists have used the research methods first used by linguists.

    2. Because linguists based their methods on those used by biologists.

    3. As an example of how different the natural sciences are from linguistics.

    4. Because both linguists and molecular biologists work from the known to the unknown.

  6. The word [divergent] in the passage is closest in meaning to

    1. similar

    2. different

    3. familiar

    4. currently existing

  7. The word [inference] in the passage could best be replaced by

    1. guesswork

    2. deduction

    3. interpretation

    4. sampling

  8. What is the Indo-European hypothesis?

    1. The notion that most European languages as well as certain languages in India are descended from the same source.

    2. The idea that the major language families in Europe originally came from India.

    3. The observation that there are similarities between Indian and European languages.

    4. The belief that similarities between certain European and Indian languages cannot be easily explained.

  9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the underlined statement in the passage? The other choices change the meaning or leave out important information.

    1. We are now certain that the Indo-European migration took place because the land could no longer sustain them.

    2. We can know from historical records that the Indo-Europeans migrated in order to find uncultivated fertile land.

    3. Although we can’t know for sure, we can assume that shortage of uncultivated fertile land forced a series of Indo-European migrations.

    4. We can conjecture that the Indo-Europeans migrated when the land became infertile.

  10. What change in linguists’ perception of the origins of Indo-European languages is discussed in paragraph 7?

    1. The Indo-European languages originated in Northern Europe rather than India.

    2. The Indo-European languages originated in Iran rather than India.

    3. The Indo-European languages originated in Asia Minor rather than Northern Europe.

    4. The Indo-European languages originated in India rather than Asia Minor.

  11. What is this passage mainly concerned with?

    1. The development of linguistics.

    2. The origin of the Indo-European languages.

    3. How ancient languages are reconstructed.

    4. Early migrations in Europe and Asia.

  12. Four boxes, A, B, C and D indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. “Speakers of the Hittite, Luwian and other Anatolian languages made relatively small migrations within the homeland, and their languages died there with them.” Where would it best fit?

    1.  

    2.  

    3.  

    4.  

  13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices (by numbering the boxes) that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

    The science of linguistics strives to reconstruct the ancestral languages from which modern languages are descended.


  14. Answer Choices

    □ Linguists have long tried to identify the source of these Indo-European languages.

    □ The Indo-European hypothesis dates from 1786 when it was first put forward by Sir William Jones.

    □ The Indo-European superfamily of languages can be subdivided into a number of smaller families.

    □ The methods linguists use to reconstruct ancient languages are similar to those used by molecular biologists to understand the evolution of life.

    □ It used to be thought that the Indo-European languages originated in Europe but now it seems more likely that they came from Asia Minor.

    □ This science developed from the recognition that there are similarities between languages spoken in Europe and ones spoken in India.

    Number the boxes according to where the answer choices belong in the summary.
投稿者 ilc : May 19, 2006
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『週刊ST』5/26「TOEFL® iBT対策講座」解説

 結論から言うと、TOEFL iBTのリーディング問題では英語ネイティブに近い英文読解力が求められます。少なくともリーディングでは、日本にいるあいだにそのようなレベルの能力をつけていない限り、有意義な留学は望めません。TOEFLに出題される程度の英文は一読して大意をとれるように、基本的な読解力をつけましょう。

 TOEFL iBTではメモを取ることが許されます。最初に一読する際、段落ごとの要約を出来るだけ短くメモしていきましょう。文章になっていなくても結構です。この例題では例えば以下のようになります。

  第一段落;歴史言語学の目標=共通基語の構築
  第二段落;原点となったのはインド・ヨーロッパ語族の研究
  第三段落;発生地はトルコの一部
  第四段落;研究法=現存する諸言語から共通要素を見つけて類推
  第五段落;ヨーロッパ語とインド語の共通点は16世紀から知られ、18世紀にあるイギリス人が「インド・ヨーロッパ語仮説」をたてる
  第六段落;土地不足が移住の原因
  第七段落;ヨーロッパは発生地から終着地へ格下げ
  第八段落;移住の実例

 この作業により、設問4−5、8−13ようなタイプの問題が解きやすくなります。(特に新しく導入される設問13のような要約問題を解くには欠かせません。)

 設問4を見てみましょう。第三段落ではインド・ヨーロッパ語族の発生地が論じられていることをはじめに確認しておけば、設問4は問題なく解けます。設問でわざわざ第三段落、と指定しているのですから。(ただし、意味を取りにくいセンテンスが含まれています。三行目、They で始まる文を意訳しておきます。「言語学者たちはこの共通基語が子言語に別れ、ユーラシア大陸全体にひろがった経路を解明しようと努力してきた。その出発点が、共通基語自体の発生地だと信じたからである。」)

 設問10を見てみます。この設問も段落を指定してくれていますので、大意をとれれば比較的楽に解けるはずです。(この第七段落もやや難解なセンテンスを含んでいます。三行目最後、Thus から始まる文の意訳を付しておきます。「かつては仮説上のアーリア人がアーリア語、あるいはインド-イラン語をヨーロッパからインドへ運んだと思われており、さらには、彼らはノルディックの超人としてナチの神話学に駆り出されさえしたのだが、彼らの正体は、小アジアから発してヒマラヤ山脈の北を回り、現在のアフガニスタンを通ってインドにいたる、というずっと現実的な移住をした実在の民、インド-イラン族だったのである。」)

 他、設問の中で段落が指定されていない場合でも、パッセージで言及された順番で出題されますから、文全体の構成を把握しておくことは極めて重要です。
 
 語彙問題をひとつ取り上げましょう。設問1、”progenitor” を含むセンテンスを訳すと「言語学は関連する諸語を研究して、それらの直接の-------( immediate progenitor )や、最終的には、一番初めの先祖 ( ultimate ancestor )、すなわち共通基語を再構築しようとする。」ですから、ここでは直前の形容詞 “immediate” と “ultimate” が対比して使われ、その後には先祖、という意味の同義語が入ることが推察できます。ですからここでは、前任者、前身もしくは先祖という意味を持つ(A)が正解となります。ただし、”progenitor” という単語を知っていれば3秒で出来る問題です。難しい言葉ですが、英語圏で大学以上の留学を目指す方が覚えなくてもいいほどの専門用語ではないので覚えて下さい。ちなみにTOEFLの問題集で、特に自然科学系のリーディングのパッセージ中に見られる専門的な術語まで記憶する必要はありませんが、本日ご紹介した練習問題にはその類の言葉はありません。このページに知らない単語があったら全て覚えてください。
 
 次に挿入問題12を見ます。現行CBTではもっとも難解といわれていたタイプの問題です。ここで取り組んでいただいた設問12はその中でもかなり難度の高いものとなっています。挿入問題での最大の鍵は、通常挿入されるべき文のなかに隠されている指示形容/代名詞 “this / that / these / those”などや定冠詞 “the” です。これらの言葉が指している名詞を捜し、その直後に挿入すればよいわけです。ただしこの作戦が通用しない場合もあります。今日の設問12もそうで、鍵は挿入文ではなく、地の文の中、第八段落一行目にあります。段落の冒頭で比較する対象もない状態でthe + 比較級という極めて珍しいかたちが使われていることに気づくか、気づかないかが勝負の分かれ目になります。この文の前で比較的小規模な移住が言及されているからこそ, その次に「より大規模な移住」と言えるのです。ただし、繰り返しますが挿入問題はやっかいです。ある程度時間をかけても鍵が見つからず、挿入してしっくり感じられる個所が2箇所以上あるときは、山勘で決めてください。
 
さて、設問13はiBTで初めて導入される、高配点の要約問題です。難度では、挿入問題を上回る最大の難関になるでしょう。かなり高度な読解力を持つ人でも、順不同にならべられる英文から正しい順番で要約文を選んでいくのは至難の業です。消去法、つまり要約として不適切な文を見つけることに徹するのが上策です。設問13の5つの選択肢に上から順にABCDEFという符号をつけ、考えていきましょう。

不適切な選択肢をみつける際、パッセ-ジで述べられていない内容のセンテンスを見つけるのは比較的容易です。ここでは選択肢Cがそれにあたります。(第二段落でインドヨーロッパ語族は非常に優勢な語族で多くの言語を含む、とは述べられていますが、”smaller families” に分割できる、という内容はどこにもありません。)警戒すべきは、問題文で言われているところの “ minor ideas in the passage “ を表現しているので省かなければならないセンテンスです。論旨上重要でない具体的な情報(地名、人名、年代など)や、比喩として言及されている事象は要約に入れるべきではありません。ここでは選択肢Bが前者、Dが後者にあたります。具体的な情報や印象的な比喩は記憶に残りやすいので、本番でも多くの受験者が B や D のような選択肢を選んでしまうだろうと予想されます。なお完成した要約は、始めの “ The science of linguistics strives ---“ で始まるセンテンスの後、F → A → E という順番でつながります。

 正解一覧
  設問1:(A)
  設問2:(C)
  設問3:(D)
  設問4:(A)
  設問5:(D)
  設問6:(B)
  設問7:(B)
  設問8:(A)
  設問9:(C)
  設問10:(C)
  設問11:(B)
  設問12:(B)
  設問13;Answer Choices, 上から順に一番目、五番目、六番目のセンテンスを選択。

投稿者 ilc : May 19, 2006
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投稿者 ilc : May 19, 2006
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